The Ghosts of Avalon

The Battle of Camlan according to Geoffrey of Monmouth:

While King Arthur is on campaign against the Romans in Gaul he entrusted the governance of Britain to Mordred. Mordred took the crown for himself and was living adulterously and out of wedlock with Queen Guinevere, who had broken the vows of her marriage. In his own words, Geoffrey prefers to say nothing further on this matter, however he does describe the battle which King Arthur fought against his treacherous nephew. Geoffrey says he heard this from Walter of Oxford, the man he claims gave him a certain ancient book in the British tongue that he translated into Latin for his ‘History of the Kings of Britain’ (Historia Regum Britanniae, c.1138).

Gallos, Tintagel

Geoffrey’s story continues: On hearing of Mordred’s usurpation Arthur quickly set sail for Britain. Mordred inflicted great slaughter on Arthur's army as they attempted to land at Richborough in Kent. Auguselus, The King of Albany and Gawain, the King's nephew, were among those that perished that day. Eventually Arthur's men secured landfall and forced Mordred's army to flee.

Mordred's army regrouped and marched on Winchester the following night. On hearing this Queen Guinevere fled from York to the City of the Legions (Caerleon) and took the vows of the nuns at the church of Julius the Martyr and promised to lead a chaste life.

After burying his dead soldiers on the third day after landing Arthur marched on Winchester and besieged his nephew Mordred who had taken refuge there. Mordred refused to abandon his plans and pitched battle ensued with his uncle, the King. Having suffered heavy losses Mordred once again fled from the battlefield and made for Cornwall by ship.

Arthur followed him to the River Camblam where Mordred’s forces  was waiting for him. Mordred drew his men into battle order, now determined to either win or die. Mordred still had sixty thousand men under his command from which he mustered six divisions. In each he placed six thousand, six hundred and sixty six armed men. From the remainder he formed one single division which he placed under his own command, having assigned leaders to each of the others.

Arthur was also marshalling his army. He divided his men into nine divisions of infantry, each drawn up in a square, with a right and left wing, appointing a commander to each.

Combat commenced with great slaughter on both sides. Arthur with a single division of 6,666 men charged at the squadron where he knew Mordred was. They hacked their way through with their swords as Arthur continued to advance, inflicting terrible slaughter as he went. At this point Mordred was killed and many thousands of his men with him.

The others in Mordred's army did not flee but carried on fighting and massed together under their leaders to stand their ground. Arthur himself was mortally wounded and was carried off to the isle of Avalon, so that his wounds might be attended to. He handed the crown of Britain to his cousin Constantine, the son of Cador Duke of Cornwall, this in the year 542.1

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And so Arthur enigmatically disappears from Geoffrey's Historia as mysteriously as his arrived; from his conception at Tintagel, as a result of the magic arts of Merlin, to his mortal wounding at Camlan, Geoffrey gives Arthur a mythical dimension and created an immortal national hero. 

Later Geoffrey elaborated on the death of Arthur in his poem Vita Merlini (c.1151), in which the King is taken to a mystical Otherworld island paradise the 'Island of Apples' which he undoubtedly meant to be the same place as the 'Isle of Avalon' of his main history, to be healed of his wounds by his kinswoman Morgan where she lives with her sisters. But in this later poem Geoffrey does not actually name Avalon. Thus, Arthur disappears to this mysterious island, mortally wounded but there is no grave for Arthur.

The River Camel
Clearly Geoffrey has taken the name of the third and final battle between Arthur and Mordred from  the 10th century Welsh Annals (Annales Cambriae) which recorded the battle in which Arthur and Mordred fell in the year AD 537. Geoffrey placed Camlann on the River Camblam in Cornwall where both Arthur and Mordred perished in this most savage conflict. 

Camlann entry in Annales Cambriae

The chronicle entry in the Welsh Annals merely states “The battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut fell: and there was plague in Britain and Ireland”. Any further elaboration is due entirely to Geoffrey’s imagination and his ability as a creative writer to embellish snippets of history with fantastic stories. From the entry in the Welsh Annals we cannot even be certain that Arthur and Mordred were on opposing sides, let alone in a love triangle involving Arthur’s queen.

No doubt drawn by the name of the river Camel in Cornwall this place was identified by antiquarians and historians long ago as the site imagined by Geoffrey to be Camblam. This is perhaps unsurprising as in his Historia Geoffrey provides Arthur with a close connection to Cornwall: he is named in the Prophecies of Merlin (Book VII of the Historia) as the Boar of Cornwall; he is conceived at Tintagel by Merlin’s magic arts; Cador, Duke of Cornwall, was his trustiest adviser who was also father of Arthur's chosen heir and cousin Constantine; his mother Ingerna was Duchess of Cornwall; and his wife Ganhumara (Guinevere) was said to be of Roman stock and raised in Cornwall by Cador. And then Geoffrey’s story turns full circle and Arthur is mortally wounded in Cornwall at the river Camblan only a few miles from the place of his conception.2   

According to local legend the battle took place on the River Camel at a place today named Slaughterbridge, Camelford, presumably in memory of the carnage. Nearby, on the bank of the River Camel at the water’s edge lies an ancient stone known as King Arthur Stone, or Arthur’s Tomb, first recorded by the Cornish antiquarian Richard Carew in 1602. The stone was recorded in the 18th century as having been used as a footbridge at Worthyvale from where it was removed and placed in its present location as a feature in Lady Falmouth’s secret garden. Today this stone is registered as an ancient scheduled monument and currently included on the at risk register owing to its location on the river bank where it is susceptible to water damage from high water levels.

The 3m long stone has survived in remarkably good condition with its inscription apparently complete. The main inscription is in Latin and there is also an Ogham script on one side making it one of only six such memorial stones in south west England. The Ogham inscription, first recorded in 1875, occurs on Christian monuments of the 5th - 6th centuries AD. The use of inscriptions in both Latin and Ogham, and the formula employed in the Latin inscription combined the style of the lettering suggests a 5th-6th century to 8th century date. 

The Latinus Stone

Back in the early 17th century, no doubt inspired by Geoffrey’s account of the battle of Camlann, Carew claimed the inscription on the stone bore Arthur's name. The final two letters 'M….AR...' has led to interesting theories based on the interpretation as representing 'Magni Arturi', or Arthur the Great.

Lewis Thorpe visited the site in 1960 and describes the stone as having partially defaced lettering in mixed classical and rustic capitals, the letters straggling and irregular. However, Thorpe was still able to decipher the inscription: ‘LATIN. . .IIC IACIT FILIVS M . . . AR. . .’  for which he offers the possible translation: ‘Latinus hic iacet filius Merlini Arturus’.3

Unfortunately, these are both misreadings of the last three letters as this stone has nothing to do with King Arthur. Historic England interpret the Latin inscription as:

`LATINI [H]IC IACIT FILIUS MA. . . RI' = `the body of Latinus lies here, son of Ma'.4

Latinus was possibly an unknown local Celtic chieftain, otherwise unrecorded. Ma was possibly of full name Macari or Macarus, again unknown

However, according to Geoffrey, Arthur was not buried at Camlann, but thereafter taken to Avalon, which may be nearer the battle site than we think.

The First Avalon?
Today this site is part of the themed visitor centre now known as ‘The Vale of Avalon’, formerly the Arthurian Centre, off the B3314, at Slaughterbridge, Cornwall, about 4 miles south-east of Tintagel.5

The Centre hosts an indoor exhibition of Arthuriana and Cornish history with gift shop, but appears to be permanently closed and said to be open only on Heritage Open Days 2026 (*see note 6). The area next to the Centre is known as Camlann – purportedly the legendary site of King Arthur's last battle. 

From the exhibition centre you can walk through the grounds, past the remains of the deserted medieval village, across the battlefield, down to a viewing platform above the river Camel to view the main attraction; the 6th century Arthur Stone lying on the bank close to the water’s edge.

Today the area is known as Worthyvale but the Domesday Book of 1086 record the name of the manor that this site lies on as – GUERDEVALAN. This is a Cornish word derived from the word for "Vale of Apples" and is claimed by the Arthurian Centre as the earliest reference to ‘Avalon’.

However, it need be little more than a reference to an orchard as there is no known mystical association with the place. Certainly this is not the place Geoffrey had in mind for Avalon as he elaborates on the mythical island in the Vita Merlini.

Unsurprisingly, given the purported local connection with Arthurian legend, the Cornish ‘Latinus’ stone is seen as a relic of the battle of Camlann. However, the original location of the stone is unknown; it has clearly been moved from its place of origin. An alternative argument associates the stone with a battle fought in AD 825 at a place called Gafulford, which has been interpreted as an earlier form of the name Camelford. The Anglo Saxon Chronicle simply records for that year "The Westwealas (Cornish Britons) and the Defnas (Men of Devon) fought at Gafulforda" without naming the victors - however it has been suggested that the battle secured the south-west border of Wessex. The date of the battle being close to the dating of the Latin inscription on the Latinus stone.

The site of the battle of Gafulford is unknown. The problem with the ‘Gafulford = Camelford’ proposal is that Camelford is deep in Cornwall and unlikely to be the site of a border conflict with an expanding Wessex. Thus, Galford, near Lewdown in Devon is considered the most likely in the context of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle. In conclusion the stone may simply be a memorial unconnected to any battle.

Alas, the Latinus stone has as much to do with Arthur as Camelford has with Camlann and we should reject both in any serious search for Arthur’s last battle.

Notes & References
1. Here I follow Lewis Thorpe’s translation of the Historia Regum Britanniae from Camb. Univ. Libr. MS.1706 as printed by Acton Griscom in 1929]. Geoffrey of Monmouth: The History of the Kings of Britain, translated by Lewis Thorpe, Penguin Books, 1966, pp.257-261.
2. O J Padel, CMCS, No 8 Winter 1984, pp.1-29.
3. Thorpe, pp.259-60.
4.  Historic England: An early Christian memorial stone 380m south east of Worthyvale Manor
5. ‘The Vale of Avalon’ formerly the Arthurian Centre, off the B3314, at Slaughterbridge, Cornwall.
6. At the time of posting The Vale of Avalon (The Arthurian Centre), Slaughterbridge, was NOT listed as an event on The Heritage Open Day page (Cornwall). 

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Camlan Plotted

Plotting Camlan: Letters from the Dead

An.93. Gueith camlann in qua Arthur et Medraut corruerunt.

[The Strife of Camlann in which Arthur and Medraut fell]

Armageddon Found
The journey to Camlan has been a long road, a quest that has covered all corners of the country. I set out on this path with no preconceived notions as to the location of Camlan. I knew, of course, that there are sites in Wales that bear that name today. Yet, any connections between these locations and the battle of Camlan has been dismissed as the earliest record of them does not appear until the 16th century. [Scott Lloyd, The Arthurian Place Names of Wales, UMP, 2017]

This is an absurd suggestion; the first written record of Stonehenge does not appear until the 12th century yet we know it has been in existence since the early third millennium BC. The date of a place name's first documentation is not justification for dismissing its potential ancientness.

The name Camlan is made up of two elements; “Cam” meaning crooked and “Lan” meaning which can be derived from “Glan” river bank, or possibly “Llan” a sacred enclosure. Armed with this etymology historical detectives have scoured the country to find a suitable location for, by all accounts, the battle that caused the end of days for the Arthurian realm, the collapse of the Round Table, and the death of Arthur.

Most are seeking a site in which the British would have encountered barbarians, be they Saxons. Picts or Scotti. But in Welsh tradition the battle is never associated with Saxons and Modred was certainly not the villain, this was introduced by Geoffrey of Monmouth in the 12th century.

Historians tend to favour Camboglanna Roman fort by Hadrian’s Wall as the site of Camlan based solely on the etymology of the name; “crooked bank” which is appropriate for the site but hardly unique.

For many years Camboglanna was identified with Birdoswald Roman fort on the Wall with the added appeal of a chieftain’s Dark Age hall that was suddenly abandoned in the early 6th century, the traditional date of the battle. However, it is now accepted that Camboglanna is to be correctly identified as Castlesteads Roman fort, the twelfth fort on Hadrian's Wall, some seven miles west from Birdoswald.  

Camboglanna was constructed 350 metres south of the Wall, being unique as the only fort built between the Wall and the rear Vallum to the south. An inscription dated to the 6th century is the only evidence for sub-Roman activity at the site. Overlooking the Cambeck Valley, Camboglanna guarded an important approach to the Wall. However, the site was drastically levelled in 1791 when the gardens of Castlesteads House were laid over it leaving no visible remains today.

This site immediately sounds tempting for the location of Arthur’s last battle but there is no record of any Dark Age battle here. Castlesteads went out of use when the Romans abandoned the fort in the 4th century. There are no Arthurian traditions here, no lore, no Dark Age battle to connect it with Arthur. 

We must reject it as a candidate for the site of the battle of Camlan. Furthermore, it is argued that the name of the fort should have evolved into “Camglann” by the 6th century but the entry in the Welsh Annals shows it as “Camlan” as it would have become by the 10th century when the Annals were written down and it immediately becomes questionable if it was indeed a contemporary entry.

Then we must also consider the fact that the entry in the Welsh Annals nicely fills the void of Arthur’s career, left open in the "Battle List" in the Historia Brittonum which list all of his victories. The Welsh Annals links from the peak of Arthur’s career at Badon to his death at Camlan and thus draws his biography to a conclusion. All considered, the historicity of the Camlan entry in the Welsh Annals certainly looks questionable.

If the Camlan entry in the Welsh Annals is suspect then we should look at the Welsh traditional accounts of the battle prior to Geoffrey of Monmouth, or certainly those accounts free of his influence.

I started the quest for Camlan by examining the Dream of Rhonabwy although a 12th century text it is recognised as portraying traditional Welsh detail similar to that found in the early 11th century tale of Culhwch and Olwen. 

In the tale Rhonabwy dreamt he was journeying with his companions across the plain of Argyngroeg and his intent was towards Rhyd y Groes on the Severn. As they travelled they came across a rider who said he was Iddawc the son of Mynyo but better known through his nickname Iddawc Cordd Prydain.

Iddawc tells Rhonabwy that was one of the messengers between Arthur and Mordred (Medraut / Medrawd in Welsh) at the battle and twisted their messages to each other to bring about the strife of Camlan. At least seven years has now passed since Camlan as Iddawc went to Y Llech Las to do penance, where he remained for seven years until he gained pardon. Yet, here Arthur’s forces are gathering for the battle of Badon, which has not yet happened and time appears to running backwards. 

We then came to the three men who escaped Camlan according to a triad embedded in Culhwch and Olwen; Morfran son of Tegid; Sanddef Pryd Angel and Cynwyl Sant the last to leave Arthur.

Yet, by the 17th century Arthur’s curious association with the Celtic saints had increased the number of survivors from Camlann to seven, Sandde and Morfran are consistent from Culwch and Olwen, but Cynwal Sant has changed to St Cynfelyn, with the addition of three other saints, St Cedwyn, St Pedrog  and St Derfel with Geneid the Tall unidentified, although it has been suggested he was Hefeydd Hir, one of the seven chieftains left in Britain when Brân departed on his disastrous journey to Ireland in the story of Branwen, Daughter of Llŷr from the Mabinogi.

The association with the saints continued in a late manuscript known as Bonedd y Saint (Descent of the Saints), which records the genealogical tracts of the early British Saints, and shows Cawrdaf listed as the father of Mordred, in turn the father of Dyfnog (§.51), a 6th century saint. 

Another genealogical tract lists Cawrdaf as the father of Iddawc, Agitator of Britain (§.88), the man who caused Camlan, the self-confessed traitor in Rhonabwy's Dream. Although we should be cautious in holding a high degree of confidence in these late genealogical listings, this does raise the intriguing proposition that Iddawc was the brother of Mordred.  

However, Mordred is notably conspicuous by his absence from Arthur’s warband in early Welsh poems such as Preiddu Annwn, Pa Gur, and significantly from Culhwch and Olwen in which the “court list” calls up nearly three hundred characters from Arthurian lore and beyond. Significantly, after appearing in the 10th century Welsh Annals, in the entry for Camlan, Mordred is largely absent from Welsh literature until Geoffrey uses him as Arthur’s arch nemesis.

Mordred and Gwenhwyfar are also absent from the earliest version of the Triads of the Island of Britain (Trioedd Ynys Prydein) contained in the manuscript Peniarth 16. However, as later version of the Triads developed, recorded in the White Book of Rhydderch and the Red Book of Hergest (14th century), they both became implicitly involved with Camlan and according to the accounts contained within these later Triads the cause of the battle always involved Gwenhwyfar. 

In contrast, there are ample allusions to the Battle of Camlan in Welsh sources prior to Geoffrey of Monmouth’s early 12th century Historia regum Britanniae, indicating the existence of a lost story of Camlan in Welsh tradition, yet none of these accounts elaborate on the cause of the battle or infer that it was caused by Mordred and Gwenhwyfar. Indeed, apart from the entry in the Welsh Annals, neither Mordred or Gwenhwyfar appear in Welsh literature securely dated before Geoffrey’s story; thus their later involvement with Camlan is possibly due directly the result of Geoffrey’s influence.

Finally, we come to the earliest mention of Camlan as found in the 9th or 10th century Stanzas of the Graves (Englynion y Beddau) from the Black Book of Carmarthen (Llyfr Du Caerfyrddin) containing topographic details of the graves of legendary Welsh heroic characters in stark contrast to the simple entry in the Welsh Annals:

The grave of Osfran’s son is at Camlan
After many a slaughter;
The grave of Bedwyr is on Tryfan hill 

Patrick Sims-Williams speculated that there seems to be an association between Osfran and Morfran without developing the concept further. I pondered the idea if Osfran was the Nightcrow paired with Morfran the Seacrow? Whatever, Osfran is the key to Camlan.  

I have plotted these characters associated with the Welsh traditional account of Camlan on the map and now looked for some sort of pattern. They appear to be laid out in a best-fit outer group and then an inner group.

Finally I joined the locations of Morfran at Llyn Tegid, with Osfran at Tywyn and found they intersected two of the three Camlan sites in Wales. I was convinced there was something in this association between the site of Arthur’s last battle and these mythological crows.

Unfortunately, it must be admitted, that none of these sites bears any early Arthurian traditions; Welsh poets remember the battle as a particularly bloody affair – is it really likely they would forget the location of such a catastrophic event?

When historical detectives have searched the British Isles and beyond for the site of Arthur’s last battle with similar sounding names in vain, we find that a place called Camlan, spelt exactly as recorded in early Welsh sources, at precisely and strategically in the border area of the old kingdoms of Gwynedd and Powys. This site is quite appealing as it suggests civil strife between the two kingdoms as suggested by Gildas when writing in the 6th century he states that external wars have ceased.

We find Camlan situated by the River Dyfi (Dovey) beyond the pass of Bwlch Oerddws on the A470 between the village of Dinas Mawddwy and Dolgellau, a strategic route between north and south Wales. A memorial stone to mark the site of the battlefield was erected in 1994. This is accessed by a footpath at the rear of the Meirion Mill car park where the neighbouring field is called Maes-y-Camlan. 

North of Dolgellau, an outlier to the two sites near Dinas Mawddwy, the Afon Gamlan rises on the east slope of Y Lethr, the highest point on the Rhinogs and flows easterly through Cwm Camlan to discharge into the Afon Mawddach just south of the village of Ganllwyd, surrounded by the King's Forest Coed y Brenin. The A470 road passes through the village here and broadly follows the same direction of the old Roman road known as Sarn Helen which used to ford the Eden just before it joins with the Mawddach and Gamlan. The exact route of the Roman road is unclear but is known to pass the Roman fort of Tomen-y-Mur by the now redundant nuclear power station of Trawsfynydd further north along the A470.

The A470 is a lonely road where it passes through Coed y Brenin, the oldest and most extensive forest in Wales. It is easy to see the ford of a Roman road in a deep forest as an attractive site for an ambush. 

Intriguingly, we find the death omen of the “washer at the ford”, often a hag washing bloody garments at the ford of a river; if a warrior saw her washing his armour in the stream, it meant he was to die that day. In Celtic mythology she is known as Badb, an aspect of the Morrigan, known as the Battle Crow. 

In conclusion, I have not found the site of a historical battle but I seem to have stumbled upon the mythological origins of the Strife of Camlann as revealed by the three crows.

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Osfran’s Son

Plotting Camlan:Letters from the Dead

The Cave of the Lads of Eyri
Long ago, the story goes, a local shepherd was collecting his sheep on mount Snowdon when one fell down to a shelf on Y Lliwedd. When he scrambled down the precipice to rescue the stray he stumbled across the narrow entrance of a cave. There was light within: he looked in and beheld a host of warriors without number all asleep, resting on their arms and equipped for battle. As he was squeezing in the shepherd struck his head against a bell hanging in the entrance. It rang so that every corner of the immense cave rang again, and all the warriors woke uttering a terrible shout, which so frightened the shepherd that he fled and never more enjoyed a day’s health. The cave has never been found since. 

The story of the "Cave of the Young Men of Snowdon” (Ogof Llanciau Eryri) belongs to the mythic genre of the sleeping king in the mountain. The classic tale of a king who once ruled over a golden age is said to have withdrawn with his knights into a mountain cave where he waits, sleeping but not dead, one day to return. It is often associated with King Arthur and several mountains in Britain claim the King is sleeping within. 

Tryfan overlooking Llyn Ogwen

How did these young men end up in this cave? When King Arthur returned to Britain after his campaign in Europe, he found the throne had been usurped by his nephew Mordred. Arthur pursued Mordred’s forces through the mountains of Eryri (Snowdonia) until they came to Tregalan just above Cwm Llan below Snowdon.

The two armies engaged at the pass now known as Bwlch y Saethau, the Pass of Arrows, between Yr Wyddfa and Y Lliwedd. Mordred’s archers let fly a rain of arrows at Arthur’s men, one of which mortally wounded Arthur who was then buried under a pile of stones, known as Carnedd Arthur on the summit of Yr Wyddfa.

After burying Arthur his men went up the ridge of Y Lliwedd, and then descended the precipice overlooking Llyn Llydaw into a cave in the face of the cliff. They sealed the entrance up behind them, sleeping in their armour awaiting the King’s return.

After the battle Bedwyr is said to have thrown Arthur’s sword into Llyn Ogwen (some say Llyn Llydaw immediately below the cliff face of Y Lliwedd), but he must have been wounded in the final battle and never made it back to the cave as he was buried on the slopes of Tryfan in the Ogwen Valley.

So much for local legend; it is impossible to date the survival of these oral tales but Bedwyr’s burial place is recorded in an ancient Welsh poem which has been dated to the 9th or 10th century, but may preserve an even older tradition. This same text provides the oldest mention of the battle of Camlan:

The grave of Osfran’s son is at Camlan
After many a slaughter;
The grave of Bedwyr is on Tryfan hill

The Graves of the Warriors
The earliest mention of Camlan is found in The Stanzas of the Graves (Englynion y Beddau). It is a Middle Welsh poem dated to the 9th or 10th century, a collection of 73 englynion found in the 13th century manuscript known as the Black Book of Carmarthen (Llyfr Du Caerfyrddin). Additional stanzas appear in the later manuscripts Red Book of Hergest (Llyfr Coch Hergest) and the White Book of Rhyderrch (Llfyr Gwyn Rhydderch), yet the Black Book stanzas are considered the core text.

This text contains the first mention of Camlan in Welsh tradition, earlier than the 10th century entry in the Welsh Annals (Annales Cambriae). However, whereas the Welsh Annals, in their simple chronicle format, are conventionally regarded as “historical”, The Stanzas of the Graves contains topographic details of the graves of legendary Welsh heroic characters. Many of the characters are obscure, long forgotten heroes; Oliver J Padel sees the poem as memories of landmarks believed to be their graves.

However, some characters are known from the Mabinogi and early Welsh Arthurian literature such as Cai and Bedwyr who appear in tales such as Culhwch and Olwen. Needless to say, many of the graves cannot be located today.

The Stanzas of the Graves contains mentions of several Arthurian characters, but the most well known stanza is St.44 which records the fact that the grave of Arthur is unknown. This stanza is often cited in the legend of Arthur’s survival and future return. This legend was certainly extant in the early 12th century when the Canons of Laon visited Cornwall (1113) and a near riot broke out when the local people took offence to the suggestion that Arthur was dead. Even Geoffrey of Monmouth in his History of the Kings of Britain (c.1136) tells us that following the battle of Camlan the mortally wounded Arthur was taken to Avalon to be healed of his wounds. Geoffrey did not say Arthur was dead.

As we have seen, The Stanzas of the Graves tells us that Arthur’s trusty companion Bedwyr is buried on the slopes of Tryfan, This is without doubt the 3,000 ft high mountain in the Ogwen Valley in Snowdonia. As this is contained in the same stanza as the reference to Camlan it surely locates the traditional site of Arthur’s last battle in Wales also. 

So here we have a reference to Arthur’s last battle attached to the same stanza as Bedwyr’s grave on Tryfan in Snowdonia. Significantly, later Arthurian literature, such as Malory, also attaches Bedwyr (Sir Bedivere) to Camlan, indeed he is the knight who returns Arthur’s sword to the Lady of the Lake. As The Stanzas of the Graves tends to group associated lore together, Osfran’s grave will not be far away. Find Osfran and surely we can locate Camlan.

The Saint and the Stone
Osfran is a rare name in Welsh. Even worse, we are not even given the name of his son. Patrick Sims-Williams suggested the first element has an Anglo Saxon ring to it, such as in Oswald. 

Arthurian sleuths have played about with the name and come up with various concoctions, conveniently linking the name to topographic features to suit their argument for a particular location for the battle of Camlan. This is the biggest problem with today’s crop of modern authors who claim to have identified Arthur and solved the riddle of his battles in the north, south or west, and ultimately damages the credibility of the quest. Manipulating names to suit a self-generated theory is not good scholarship. Arthur is Arthur, not some similar name, or a warrior’s battle name meaning “The Bear”. Similarly Camlan is Camlan (note the spelling in Welsh Tradition), not something similar.

Mentions of the name Osfran are few and far between but we find another in the Canu I Gadfan (Song to Cadfan) a long praise poem to St Cadfan by Llywelyn Fard I. The poem links traditions and praise of Cadfan to Morfran, the first abbot and the church at Tywyn “near the edge of the blue sea”, in the ancient Cantref of Meirionnydd, which lay between the waterways of the Mawddach and the Dyfi.

Today this church at Tywyn is some three quarters of a mile from the sea, but was originally on a rising mound by the coast, only becoming land locked when the marshes were drained in the 18th century. The church at Tywyn is in indeed ancient; here we find the oldest known stone inscribed with the Welsh language.

St Cadfan's Church, Tywyn

St Cadfan's Church is situated in Tywyn in the county of Gwynedd, formerly Merionethshire, Wales. The church is noted for its Romanesque architecture and for housing the Cadfan Stone, one of four early medieval inscribed stones associated with the church:

Tywyn 1 (now lost) was first noted in 1698, when it stood in the churchyard, to the south-east of the Church. Its Roman inscription is thought to be 5th century in date. 

Tywyn 2, thought to be 9th century in date, presently stands upright in the north aisle of the church. It bears the earliest known inscriptions in Welsh.

Tywyn 3, a 7th to 9th century cross-inscribed pillar-stone, thought to have been found buried at Bryn Paderau (Pater Noster Hill) some 500m south-south-east of the church, at the point where it first comes into view. Modern Ordnance Survey mapping depicts the road connecting the two sites as 'Ffordd Cadfan'. The stone is thought to have possibly been a boundary marker associated with church land and was built into the tower (below the belfry window) in 1884. 

Tywyn 4, is currently located inside the church building, at its west end. It was first noted in 1986 after the demolition of Ynysmaengwyn mansion where it had been built into one of the outhouses. Originally a sundial dating to the 8th or 9th century, it is thought to have been originally associated with the church. 

Located some 150m to the west-north-west of the church is Ffynnon Gadfan (St Cadfan's Well) which in the 16th century was said to lie within the original churchyard which appears to have once been a larger curvilinear enclosure. The well reputedly cured rheumatism, scrofula and cutaneous disorders.  

The first documentary reference to St Cadfan’s Church was in 963 AD, when it is thought to have been the mother church of the region. 

A 12th century poet, Llywelyn Fardd, reportedly described the church as a whitewashed building with a ditch surrounding it, beyond which was a 'clas' or lay community, dependent on the church. The poet also emphasised the refuge and territorial protection conveyed by St Cadfan (and hence, by association, the church). The church was a place of pilgrimage at that time, where relics were kept and miracles reportedly occurred.

St Cadfan, also the patron of Llangadfan in Montgomeryshire, is credited with the foundation of the monastic settlement on Bardsey island where he is recorded as first abbot. He was traditionally the son of Eneas the Breton and crossed from Brittany (some say Llanilltud Fawr) to Wales with a party of other monks, many of these were said to be his relatives. It is claimed he established the first ‘clas’ in Wales at Tywyn in the early 6th century, traditional date AD 516. Fourteen of his companions are said to have founded churches in the area.

When Llywelyn composed his ode to Cadfan in the 12th century a man named Morfran was abbot at Tywyn. Morfran appears to have been lay-abbot of the clas at Tywyn and also steward of Cynfal castle (Castell Cynfael) 2 miles north east of Tywyn. The motte was built in 1147 by Cadwaladr ap Gruffudd ap Cynan with commanding views across the Dysynni valley. The castle was captured later that year by Cadwaladr’s nephews, Hywel and Cynan. Morfran’s efforts in defending the castle would appear to have been the inspiration for the Canu Cadfan.

In the poem Llywelyn goes on to praise the prowess of Osfran as a warrior:

“Like loud Osfran piercing the enemy’s shield,
A generous, magnificent shield prevailing over counterclaims;
And its giver-abbot dispenses favour:
To us he distributes from his church a multitude,
He arranges battle with the Lord’s consent
Morfran flowing with gifts, pride of a days entertainment.”

If Morfran’s defence of Castell Cynfael was the bard’s inspiration for Canu Cadfran, then the abbot seems to be compared to the warrior Osfran. If Osfran’s son fought and died at Camlan in 537, according to the Welsh Annals, then Osfran himself must have been a well known warrior in this area in the early 6th century, which would make him contemporary with St Cadfan’s arrival at Tywyn.

The Night Crow
However, I find the association of Osfran with Morfran intriguing. As you will remember from earlier posts in this series, Morfran was also the name of one of the three who escaped from Camlan according to a Triad embedded in the tale of How Culhwch won Olwen; “Morvran the son of Tegid, Sandde Bryd Angel and Kynwyl Sant”.

As the second element of both names, “fran” means crow (Morfran = sea-crow), could these two names be related in some way in the earliest story of Camlan? 

Now here's a daft thought: “Brân” can be a mutation of “Fran” meaning crow or raven, coupled with “Nos” meaning “night” would give Nosbran, corrupted to [N]osfran. As will be immediately obvious I am no etymologist, and please forgive my very limited knowledge of the Welsh language, but I am intrigued by the possibility that Osfran could have been the “night-crow” associated with Morfran the “sea-crow”? Did they have a role reminiscent of the two ravens of Norse mythology Huginn (thought) and Muninn (memory)?

The Stanzas of the Graves cannot be considered a historical entry in any way as this is a catalogue of topographic folklore, detailing the graves of the warriors of Britain. Although it must be admitted that some warriors names and locations are obscure and may indeed be that ancient that their tales are lost to us. However, we find information of a similar ilk in the Mirabilia, appended to the Harlian manuscript of the Historia Brittonum where Arthur the soldier has become entangled with topographic folklore.

The question is burning a hole in the page: Was Camlan historical or mythical?

Whereas the veracity of the Arthurian battle list in the Historia Brittonum can be readily challenged with the Badon entry in the Welsh Annals incorrectly ascribed to Arthur and looking every inch like it follows the battle at Guinnion, many see the Camlan entry in the Welsh Annals as independent evidence for a historical Arthur with Camboglanna on Hadrian’s Wall favoured as the battle site on etymological grounds alone.

Yet, in Welsh tradition the battle has a distinctively Otherworldy tone to it. But clearly the account of Arthur’s last battle has been lost to us. We see glimpses of Camlan in early Welsh tradition such as the tale of Culhwch and Olwen and The Stanzas of the Graves, which seem to be a million miles away from Geoffrey of Monmouth’s account.

Sources
Thomas Jones, ed., The Black Book of Carmarthen ‘Stanzas of the Graves’ Proceedings of the British Academy 53 (1967): pp.97–137.
OJ Padel, Arthur in Medieval Welsh Literature, University of Wales Press, Second Edition, 2013, pp.37-38.
Patrick Sims-Williams, The early Welsh Arthurian poems, in: Bromwich, Rachel, A. O. H. Jarman, and Brynley F. Roberts (eds.), The Arthur of the Welsh, 1991, pp.33–71.

* * *

The Giant’s Daughter

Plotting Camlan: Letters from the Dead




Throughout the Arthurian legend Guinevere is well known as an adulteress and abductee; the woman who brought about the battle of Camlan and the fall of King Arthur.

But was it always that way? 

Arthurian Legend in the 12th Century
The 12th century saw massive change to the Arthurian legend after the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth elevated Arthur of the Britons to conqueror of Europe. This period witnessed the birth of Arthurian Romance; following Geoffrey, Medieval Romance carried King Arthur to the courts of Europe with the tales of Chretien de Troyes introducing the quest for the Grail. Others followed and by the 15th Century Thomas Malory wrote the ultimate Arthurian story, Le Morte d’Arthur.

Malory’s summation weaved together the many strands of Arthurian Romance but has essentially stayed true to Geoffrey’s final days of the King; Medrawd (Mordred) has usurped the throne and abducted Guinevere. The Arthurian journey ends at Camlan.

The First Abduction

Guinevere - Henry Justice Ford

Geoffrey is conventionally credited with being the first to write of Guinevere’s abduction and her affair with Medrawd (Mordred) in bringing down Arthur. Yet earlier Welsh Tradition suggests that the story of "Gwenhwyfar" (the Welsh rendering of the name Guinevere) and her association with Camlan was well known prior to Geoffrey putting quill to parchment. However, it is clear that the story developed as Geoffrey’s influence on the Arthurian legend grew.

Gwenhwyfar makes her first literary appearance in the Welsh tale of Culhwch and Olwen in which Arthur cites the lady along with his other possessions. The tale of Culhwch is dated to the 11th century but the first written account that has survived is found in the White Book of Rhydderch, dated to the first quarter of the 14th Century. Although the first version of Culhwch is generally accepted as being composed before Geoffrey, we cannot rule out his influence on the manuscript version that has survived and the possibility that Gwenhwyfar was introduced to the tale as Arthur’s wife by a later hand.

The first abduction of Gwenhwyfar appears in the Vita Gildae (The Life of Gildas) by Caradoc of Llancarfan. In this account Arthur’s Queen is carried away by Melwas (honey-youth), King of the summer country, to the “city of glass”. The tale explains this as the name of Glastonia, modern Glastonbury.

The Vita is dated to the first quarter of the 12th century; Caradoc being a contemporary of Geoffrey of Monmouth. Indeed Geoffrey refers to Caradoc at the end of some versions of his Historia as being the only person capable of continuing the history of the Britons. It seems Caradoc was well versed in the early Arthurian tales as he wrote a second version of the Life of Saint Cadog in which Arthur also figures prominently. There is no reason for arguing against this being an early tale, however it is of course possible that Caradoc substituted Gwenhyfar, or "Guennuuar" as he renders her name, under the influence of Geoffrey.

Almost certainly Geoffrey knew of Caradoc’s tale of Gwenhwyfar’s abduction and weaved it into his Historia in support of the feud between Arthur and Medrawd. And this reputation then stayed with Guinevere throughout later accounts of Arthurian Romance for the next four hundred years.

Arthur’s raid on the “city of glass” is recorded in an earlier Welsh poem known as Preiddeu Annwn (The Spoils of Annwn) from the 14th century manuscript The Book of Taliesin. However, scholars have argued on linguistic grounds for a 10th Century composition date. If this is correct it was composed several hundred years before Geoffrey.

This early Welsh poem describes a raid by Arthur on Annwn, the Welsh name for the Celtic Otherworld, to release a prisoner, named here as "Gweir". The poem is divided into eight stanzas, with each using different terms such Caer Sidi (Mound, or Fairy Fortress) Caer Rigor (Fortress of Hardness), or Caer Wydyr (Glass Fortress) to describe the Otherworld.

In Old Welsh, “caer” can mean fortress, stronghold or citadel. In the 9th Century Historia Brittonum (History of the Britons, aka Nennius) the author lists 28 cities, all of which are called "caer".

It is certainly possible that Arthur’s raid on Caer Wydyr in The Life of Gildas by Caradoc of Llancarfan is based on an archetypal tale such as Arthur’s raid on Annwn from the Taliesin poem Preiddeu Annwn, but in Caradoc’s account it has been adapted to explain the name of Glastonia and perhaps included Gwenhwyfar for the first time. However, Geoffrey of Monmouth never referred to Glastonbury as “Avalon”, another name for the Celtic Otherworld; to him Avalon was an island where Arthur’s sword Caliburn was forged and then he was taken to be cured of his wounds by Morgen and her sisters, a similar concept to the Isles of the Blessed.

Significantly, Gwenhwyfar is not mentioned in the earlier account of Arthur’s raid on the Otherworld as recorded in the Preiddeu Annwn, yet the story of the abduction of Arthur’s wife by his nephew was certainly extant in Europe before Geoffrey.

In the north Italian city of Modena stands the Cathedral dedicated to The Assumption of the Virgin Mary and Saint Geminianus. On the archivolt of the cathedral's north portal, known as the Porta della Pescheria, is a carving claimed to be the earliest monumental sculpture to feature the Arthurian legend.

Modena Archivolt

The Modena archivolt shows two figures, identified as Mardoc and Winlogee, inside a castle. Riding on horseback toward the castle are figures such as Artus de Bretania, Galvagin and Che. This scene has been described as the abduction of Guinevere as “Winlogee” appears to be a Breton rendering of the name. Mardoc (Medrawd) has imprisoned her in the Castle of Glass with Arthur, Gawain and Cai advancing.

The carving on the Modena archivolt has been dated to be between 1120 and 1140, making it contemporary with Caradoc of Llancarfan and Geoffrey of Monmouth yet certainly before Chretien de Troyes took the theme of Guinevere’s abduction into Arthurian Romance.

Is there evidence for Gwenhwyfar before Geoffrey?

The First Guinevere
As we have seen above, Gwenhwyfar first appears in the 11th century Arthurian tales  Culhwch and Olwen. When Arthur recalls a list of his possessions they all have Otherworldly connections, including Gwenhwyfar.

The original Welsh form of the name Gwenhwyfar, meaning “white fairy/phantom”, is cognate with the Irish name Findabair, the daughter of Queen Medb in Irish mythology, from Old Irish “síabair” meaning a spectre, phantom, supernatural being.

Indeed, for this reason some scholars [Thomas Green for example] see the battle of Camlan as an Otherwoldly event, rather than historical.

There is then an argument that in the original tale Arthur’s Queen was carried off to the Otherworld, the City of Glass. Arthur then carries out a raid to retrieve her, along with other booty, such as cauldron. This tale, perhaps the first and original Arthurian tale, a Celtic version of the Greek myth of Persephone, has been lost to us in the course of time.

And as with Gwenhwyfar’s name, we find that the abduction story may have its origins in an earlier Irish account in which the King’s wife is abducted by his nephew.

Gwenhwyfar in Welsh Tradition
In some versions of Geoffrey’s work the name Gwenhwyfar is rendered into Latin as “Guanhumara”. It has been suggested that this spelling of the name may be based on an earlier Welsh name suggesting Geoffrey had access to some native Cambrian source. Whatever Geoffrey’s sources we find Gwenhwyfar’s appearance in Welsh tradition to be very few and far between.

As we have seen above, Gwenhwyfar first appears in the Arthurian tale Culhwch and Olwen, and occurs in the Life of Gildas (as Guennuuar), yet she is then entirely absent from early Welsh literature until The Triads of the Island of Britain.

The Triads contain a rich body of folklore and legendary tales, yet often include historical characters, often out of time and place. Rachel Bromwich lists 97 Triads in her magnum opus: Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Triads of the Island of Britain; a collation of all the manuscripts abbreviated as “TYP”. Peniarth 16 is the oldest version of the Triads, which Bromwich calls the “Early Version” ending at Triad 46.

The earliest, and only Triad in Peniarth 16, to mention Camlan is TYP 30 “Three Faithless Warbands of the Island of Britain” which does not mention Arthur, Gwenhwyfar or Medrawd but tells how the warband of Alan Frygan deserted him the night before the battle. Frygan was a Breton lord who died around 1130 which indicates the likely composition date of the composition of the Triad.

The remaining Triads do not appear in Peniarth 16 but are found in the following manuscripts:

Triads 47-69:  The White Book of Rhydderch and The Red Book of Hergest,
Triads 70-80: Peniarth 47,
Triads 81-86: Peniarth 50,
Triads 87-97: miscellaneous additions from later manuscripts.

The White Book of Rhydderch and The Red Book of Hergest manuscripts are dated to the 14th century while Peniarth 47 and Peniarth 50 manuscripts are from the 16th century.

Battle of Camlan

According to the Triads, here mirroring Geoffrey, Gwenhwyfar is the cause of the Battle of Camlan. She is mentioned in five Triads and the battle of Camlan in a three.

Triad 53 says the slap that Gwenhwyfach struck upon Gwehhwyfar caused the conflict of the Battle of Camlan. Apart from this and one other Triad (see below), Gwenhwyfach is only known from Culhwch and Olwen in which she is recorded as Gwenhwyfar’s sister.

Triad 54 tells of Modred’s visit to Arthur’s court at Celliwig in Cornwall and he left neither food nor drink that he did not consume. He also dragged Gwenhwyfar from her Royal chair and struck a blow upon her. The Triad records a second reckless ravaging when Arthur came to Modred’s court and left neither food or drink. This Triad is often linked to the previous one (53) and typically interpreted as Arthur’s avenging Medrawd’s insult. However, this tale may not necessarily linked to Camlan.

Triad 56 lists Arthur’s Three Great Queens, all appropriately named Gwenhwyfar yet each with a different named father, one named curiously as Gogfran the Giant.

Triad 80 records Three Faithless Wives of the Island of Britain with Gwenhwyfar more faithless than the three because she shamed a better man than the others.

Triad 84 lists Three Futile Battles of the Island of Britain; the third was Camlan which was brought about because of Gwenhwyfars’ contention with Gwenhwyfach.

In addition to the Triads already mentioned (30, 53, 84) the battle of Camlan is also mentioned in Triads 51 and 59. Triad 51 mentions Three Men of Shame in the Island of Britain; the third and worst was Medrawd when Arthur left him with the government of the country while he went oversea to oppose the emperor of Rome. Bromwich writes that the content of this Triad from the Red Book has been lifted directly from the narrative of Geoffrey of Monmouth.

The threefold divisions by Arthur of his men with Medrawd at Camlan is recorded in Triad 59 as one of the Three Unfortunate Counsels of the Island of the Island of Britain. Again, this appears to follow Geoffrey’s account which says Medrawd has a force of 60,000 men for the final battle which he split into six divisions, in each he placed six thousand, six hundred and sixty-six armed men, the rest he placed in his own division. Meanwhile, Arthur divided his men into nine divisions.

The later Triads found in the White and Red Books show Arthur’s growing popularity from the influence of Geoffrey of Monmouth and the courtly romances. It should be noted that it is only after Geoffrey that Gwenhwyfar is associated with Camlan and her treacherous affair with Medrawd.

Hence, it is difficult to find evidence of Gwenhwyfar in Welsh tradition that is free from Geoffrey’s influence. Yet where we might there is just a trace of Gwenhwyfar in a supernatural context; this puts her firmly in the realm of legendary beings, which is where the earliest Welsh Arthurian literature, such as Culhwch and Olwen and Preiddeu Annwn, places Arthur as a superhero fighting witches, monsters and giants in the Otherworld.

The Giant’s Daughter
We noted above how Gwenhwyfar was referred to in the Triads as the daughter of [G]Ogfran the Giant (often spelt Ogrfan). Significantly absent from the earliest Welsh literature that is securely free of Geoffrey’s influence which always associates her with Camlan and Medrawd, Gwenhwyfar is remembered by the later Medieval Welsh poets as the “Giant’s Daughter”.

Old Oswestry hillfort - Caer Ogfran

Gwenhwyfar was referred to in the Triads as the daughter of Gogfran the Giant, although not necessarily a giantess she is clearly a folkloric character. Gogfran is associated with Old Oswestry hillfort, known as Caer Ogfran, in Shropshire, since at least the 12th century. However, scholars are not agreed on the location of the Giant’s abode; “carreg-y-fran” near Beguildy in Radnorshire may have its origin in “Kayr Ogheruen”, i.e. Gogyrfen’s Fort. Oddly Radnorshire contains several locations known as the “Giants Grave”.

In the early 17th  century Sion Rhys Davies wrote an account of the Giants of Wales in defence of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s claim that Britain was first inhabited by Giants. Indeed, Geoffrey has Arthur fighting the giant Ritho, or Ritta, on mount Snowdon and he defeats another giant at St Michael’s Mount on his journey to Gaul.

A late tale recorded by Davies tells of the abduction of Gwenhwyfar’s brothers by some giants. She calls upon Arthur for assistance:

“There was a place on the frontier of the land of Shropshire, called Bron Wrgan, and it was the abode of giants.

“And in this place it is related that there were some brothers to Gwenhwyfar, the daughter of Gogyrfan Gawr, who were imprisoned by some of these giants. And she grieved greatly they were in captivity. But Arthur saved them each one, killing the giants, and taking the head of the biggest of them and throwing it into the middle of the river instead of a stone, in stepping across the river, to go to Castell y Cnwclas. And as he placed his foot on the head of the giant in stepping across the river Arthur said, Let the head grow in the river instead of a stone. And henceforth that river was called Afon Tyfed-iad, as the side of the giant's head grew.” [Sion Dafydd Rhys, The Giants of Wales and Their Dwellings, c.1600]

Afon Tefeidiad is the Welsh name for the river Teme which flows past Knucklas. A local tradition claims that Knucklas castle is where Arthur and Guinevere were married. There are scant remains of the castle today, but what does remain has been dated to the 12th and 13th centuries when the fortification was constructed by the Mortimers, a powerful family of Norman Marcher Lords, who controlled this area where Offa's Dyke and the River Teme shadow the border between Wales and England.

Knucklas Castle

Local tradition claims the mound at Knucklas, now a Cadw scheduled monument, was fortified in the Iron Age then re-occupied in the Dark Ages.  However, without excavation there has been little evidence produced to support such claims.

Another local legend says that further along the Teme valley at Crug-y-Byddar, near Felindre, was the castle of Uther Pendragon, Arthur’s father.

In between Felindre and Knucklas along the B4355 road in the Teme Valley is the village of Beguildy. Here we find Pantycaregl Farmstead, once a 16th century gentry house. According to the National Monuments Record of Wales:

“Part of Pantycaregl Farmstead (nprn 404525) was a storeyed and winged stone-built gentry house, probably dating from about 1580. It was built by Morgan ap Maredudd, patron of Sion Dafydd Rhys. The house was gutted by fire in 1931 and a new farmhouse stands on the site, although the cellar of the old house is still in use and carved heads have been preserved.”

Giant's head at Pantycaregl

The curious stone heads set under the corners of the eaves are said to be the heads of giants and perhaps refers to the Arthurian tale of the Afon Tyfeidiad (River Teme) quoted above. This seems even more likely when we realise that Morgan ap Maredudd, the builder of Pantycaregl, was also the patron of Sion Dafydd Rhys who often stayed here while writing many of his works.

Postscript
The 11th century tale Culhwch and Olwen details a list of over two hundred characters that Culhwch calls upon to help him win Olwen. One of these characters is "Gwyn Hyfar, steward of Cornwall and Devon, one of the nine who plotted the Battle of Camlan." Rachel Bromwich translates this as "Gwynn the Irascible." This name has an undeniable phonetic similarity to "Gwenhwyfar" who the writers of Welsh Tradition hold responsible for the Battle of Camlan.


Sources:
Rachel Bromwich, Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Triads of the Island of Britain, UWP, 4th Edition 2014.
Michael Faletra, trans & ed.,The History of the Kings of Britain: Geoffrey of Monmouth, Broadview Press, 2007.
Thomas Green, Concepts of Arthur, Tempus, 2007.
Chris Grooms, The Giants of Wales: Cewri Cymru, Edwin Mellen Press, 1993.


See: The Abduction of Guinevere


Edited. 22/03/20

* * *

The Lost Story of Camlan

“Many a streaming tear coursing down cheeks, many a blood-stained side gashed, many a widow bewailing him, many a fatherless son, many a ruined homestead in the track of conflagration, many an anguished cry as after Camlan...” - Gruffudd ab yr Ynad Goch (fl.1280), elegy for Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales.

Plotting Camlan: Letters from the Dead




Geoffrey’s Story
Allusions to Arthur’s last battle at Camlan can be found in the work of the Welsh poets from Y Cynfeirdd, continuing through Y Gogynfeirdd, to Cywyddwyr; a thousand year period commencing in the mid-6th century. Evidently the tradition of Camlan had a remarkable longevity in Welsh literature but, frustratingly, only incomplete references have survived; we never find a full account of the battle or the reason for the conflict. Does this suggest that the Welsh literati were aware of the full account of the battle that brought down the Dux Bellorum without need for further expansion; or was there a lost saga of Camlan long forgotten in the mists of time?

The first full account of the battle of Camlan, or “Camblam” as the author calls it, is found in the 12th century work of Geoffrey of Monmouth known as Historia regum Britanniae (The History of the Kings of Britain, c.1136). Geoffrey claims to have taken his story from a very ancient book in the British tongue given to him by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford, which he translated into the Latin.

In Geoffrey’s account King Arthur returns to Britain from his campaign in Europe in response to Mordred usurpation of the throne and abduction of Arthur’s Queen, Gwenhwyfar (Geoffrey’s “Ganhumara”, later known as “Guinevere” in the Romances). In Geoffrey account Gwenhwyfar does not resist Mordred and appears to go with him willingly. On his return to Britain Arthur lands at Richborough in Kent where his army eventually gets ashore after much fighting with Mordred’s forces. Mordred withdraws his army to Winchester. When Arthur’s host marches on Winchester Mordred takes flight to Cornwall and Gwenhwyfar flees from York to the City of the Legions (Caerleon) and joins the order of the nuns there at the church of St Julius the Martyr.

The forces of Arthur and Mordred meet for the final conflict on the River Camblam, identified by historians as Camelford on the river Camel. Geoffrey is the first to identify this Cornish location as the site of Camlan. In his study of Geoffrey’s work (The Legendary History of Britain, California, 1950) JSP Tatlock argues that Geoffrey has simply taken the name “Guieith Camlann” from the Annalaes Cambriae, and applied it to the location to the River Camel in Cornwall, barely a stone’s throw from Tintagel, the place, he identifies, of Arthur’s conception; thus, Geoffrey’s account of Arthur’s story, from birth to death, has turned full circle.

Does this stone,  lying on the bank of the
River Camel  at Slaughterbridge,
mark the site of the battle of Camlan?

Mordred has a force of 60,000 men for the final battle according to Geoffrey, which he split into six divisions, in each he placed six thousand, six hundred and sixty-six armed soldiers, the rest he placed in his own division. Meanwhile, Arthur divided his men into nine divisions. Battle commenced then after much of the day fighting with heavy losses on both sides, Arthur, with a single division of six thousand, six hundred and sixty six men charged for the squadron where Mordred was. After hacking their way through causing immense slaughter, Mordred was killed along with thousands of his men. The fighting continued until eventually Arthur was mortally wounded and carried off to the Isle of Avalon so that his wounds might be attended to. The crown of Britain passed to his cousin Constantine, the year 542.

But Arthur is not dead; Geoffrey reiterates this point in his later Life of Merlin, in which he states that Arthur is being healed of his wounds by Morgen and her sisters. It seems Geoffrey knew of tales of Arthur’s anticipated return; the “Breton Hope”. However, in the Brut, the Welsh version of the Historia regum Britanniae, Arthur is said to be buried in a hall on the island of Avalon.

The Sources of Legendary History
Geoffrey’s sources have been the subject of much debate and his claim of an ancient book is not taken seriously by modern scholars. It was even doubted by his contemporaries, who accused him of lying. He certainly had access to the works of Gildas, Bede and Nennius; the rest, filling in the gaps, is considered to be pure invention on Geoffrey’s part.

This presents two possibilities: Firstly, the allusions to the battle of Camlan found in Welsh literature from the 12th century onwards correspond to an independent source that Geoffrey also used; or secondly the medieval Welsh poets were influenced by, and followed, Geoffrey’s account.

To consider the first possibility first, we find tantalising glimpses of the battle of Camlan in early Welsh literature but lacking any specific detail.

The earliest extant and only account considered to be a historical record of Camlan is found in the 10th century Cambro-Latin chronicle, the Welsh Annals (Annales Cambriae) for Year 537: “The strife of Camlann in which Arthur and Medraut fell”.

The Stanzas of the Graves, or The Graves of the Warriors of Britain, (Englynion y Beddau) records the resting places of legendary characters from Welsh literature. As the text is folkloric in nature it is not considered a reliable historical resource. However, recorded in several manuscripts, the earliest collection is found in the Black Book of Carmarthen (Llyfr Du Caerfyrddin), compiled in the 13th century. Scholars of Welsh orthography argue that the majority of the englynion are much older than the manuscript and date to the 9th- or 10th-century. Of the 73 stanzas found in the Black Book three have Arthurian content mentioning Arthur's grave and the site of the battle of Camlan. Unfortunately the text fails to elaborate and reveals neither location.

The next mention of the battle of Camlan is in the 11th century tale Culhwch and Olwen in which we find a reference to Gwyn Hyfar (Hy-far = Irascible) steward of Cornwall and Devon, as one of the nine who plotted Camlan. The tale of Culhwch and Olwen also includes an embedded triad listing three men who escaped from Camlan; Morvran the son of Tegid, Sandde Bryd Angel, and Cynwyl Sant. Yet, oddly this Triad is completely absent of The Triads of the Island of Britain (Trioedd Ynys Prydein). Again, no further information is given on the cause or location of the battle of Camlan.

In Culhwch and Olwen we also meet Arthur's wife Gwenhwyfar for the first time in which she is listed along with his other possessions, sword, knife, etc. We also find Gwenhwyfach for the first time, identified as the sister of Gwenhwyfar. Yet, although the tale is conventionally dated to the 11th century it is not found in written form before the 14th century manuscripts, the White Book of Rhydderch and Red Book of Hergest. Simon Rodway has argued for a composition date from the second half of the 12th century (CMCS 49, 2005, and Arthur in the Celtic Languages, UWP, 2019), therefore we cannot securely state that the first appearance of Gwenhwyfar in Arthurian literature, as found in Culhwch and Olwen, is entirely independent of Geoffrey of Monmouth.

It must be noted that in these accounts, prior to Geoffrey of Monmouth, there is no suggestion of a love triangle between Mordred and Gwenhwyfar. Neither is Mordred described as a traitor, indeed he is noted as brave, good-natured man by the medieval Welsh poets.

Yet, on the other hand, Mordred is conspicuous by his absence from Arthur’s warband in his early adventures found in early Welsh poems such as Preiddu Annwn, Pa Gur, and significantly from Culhwch and Olwen in which the “court list” calls up nearly three hundred characters from Arthurian lore and beyond. Significantly, after appearing in the 10th century Welsh Annals, in the entry for Camlan as noted above, Mordred is largely absent from Welsh literature until Geoffrey uses him as Arthur’s arch nemesis.

Mordred and Gwenhwyfar are also absent from the earliest version of the Triads of the Island of Britain (Trioedd Ynys Prydein) contained in the manuscript Peniarth 16. As later version of the Triads developed, as found in the White Book of Rhydderch and the Red Book of Hergest (14th century), they are both implicitly involved with Camlan.

In conclusion, although there are ample allusions to the Battle of Camlan in Welsh sources prior to Geoffrey of Monmouth’s early 12th century Historia regum Britanniae, indicating the existence of a lost story of Camlan in Welsh tradition, none of these accounts elaborate on the cause or infer that it was caused by Mordred and Gwenhwyfar. Indeed, apart from the entry in the Welsh Annals neither Mordred or Gwenhwyfar appear in Welsh literature securely dated before Geoffrey’s story and we cannot be certain that their involvement with Camlan was directly the result of Geoffrey’s influence.

However, according to the accounts of Camlan contained within the Welsh legendary historical texts known as The Triads of the Island of Britain the cause of the battle was quite different but always involved Gwenhwyfar.





Notes
The Welsh poets:
Y Cynfeirdd (The Early Poets. 6th Century - 1100)
Y Gogynfeirdd (The Less Early Poets, c. 1100 – c. 1300)
Cywyddwyr (Poets of the Nobility, c. 1300 – c. 1650)

* * *

Medrawd: Fallen Hero?

Plotting Camlan: Letters from the Dead




The earliest extant and only historical record of Camlan is found in the 10th century Cambro-Latin chronicle, the Welsh Annals (Annales Cambriae):

Gueith camlann in qua Arthur et Medrawd corruerunt.
(The strife of Camlann in which Arthur and Medraut fell).

Annalaes Cambriae

The Welsh Annals tell us that Arthur and Medrawd (Medraut) fell at Camlan. This battle has been dated to 537 AD by scholars, 21 years after the battle of Badon. The siege of Badon hill is recorded by both Gildas and Bede and accepted as a historical event. However, neither of these early scribes name the leader of the British as Arthur, in fact Gildas fails to name the leader at all.

The Badon entry in the Welsh Annals, although supported by external sources, looks suspiciously like the text of Arthur's eighth battle at Guinnion in the Historia Brittonum [see: Arthur, Badon and the Cross]. This does not mean the battle was not a real event but it raises questions over its attachment to Arthur. One might expect an original chronicle entry to have simply read; “516 – The Siege of Badon Hill”.

Such is the Camlan entry as presented in the Welsh Annals as a simple record of an event without connection to legendary feats. Yet Camlan is not recorded in any other external source that can be considered historical, subsequently it is viewed with suspicion by historians.

The fact that the Welsh Annals use the Welsh word "Gueith" (battle, or strife) for Camlan suggests a native Welsh source. The use of the word “Gueith” is not unique to the Camlan entry, many others conflicts contained therein are recorded in Latin, such as “Bellum Badonis”. Camlann is typically depicted as a futile battle among factions of the Britons (continuing internal wars are mentioned by Gildas after the victory at Badon) and has been interpreted as a battle fought by rival Welsh kingdoms, such as Gwynedd versus Powys. For this reason Medrawd is often identified as Maelgwn who was dominant in Wales in the days after Arthur's fall.

When did Medrawd become the bad guy? There is nothing in the entry in the Welsh Annals to suggest he was responsible for the demise of Arthur. In fact, the Camlan entry makes no connection between either men or their relationship; are they fighting on the same side or adversaries?

In Medieval Welsh poetry Medrawd was portrayed as a rather courteous figure, noted for his good nature and valour (Padel, 2000, pp.113-15, Bromwich, 2017:445-46).

Mordred the Traitor
It wasn't until the 12th century when Medrawd became Arthur's nemesis at Camlan in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain (Historia Regum Britanniae), c.1136.

According to Geoffrey, while Arthur is on campaign in Europe, Mordred (as he names him) claims the throne and abducts Gwenhwyfar. The final battle is fought in Cornwall, near the river Kamblan (probably the Camel) (Padel, 1984:13). From that point on Mordred became synonymous with treachery and the man who brought down the king. The theme continued throughout the later Arthurian Romances with Mordred seemingly the result of an incestuous liaison.

Battle Between King Arthur and Sir Mordred (William Hatherell)

It is likely that Geoffrey confused two characters here, as Mordred is a Cornish name and does not readily translate into the Welsh as Medrawd (Padel, 1984:15-17). Was there an old tradition of a bad prince Mordred in Cornwall?

There is a possibility that Geoffrey may have substituted a Cornish name for Melwas, (Padel, 2000:114) the abductor of Gwenhwyfar from the episode included in Caradoc of Llancarvan's “The Life of Gildas”. Two later poems recall variations of the tale from a lost Welsh original; "The Dialogue of Melwas and Gwenhyfer” and “The Dialogue of Arthur and Gwenhyfar”. The abduction story was in circulation in the early 12th century, well before Geoffrey wrote his account in his Historia. [see: The Modena Archivolt]

Who was this Medrawd?
In the late 11th century tale of ‘How Culhwch won Olwen’, Culhwch invokes over 200 members of Arthur’s court as guarantors of the gift he is demanding of Arthur; the hand of Olwen daughter of Ysbaddaden Bencawr. Yet Medrawd is not mentioned among them and is surprisingly absent from early Welsh Arthurian poetry.

Sir Mordred by HJ Ford (1902)

Medrawd appears in three of the Triads of the Island of Britain, but none can be safely considered free from the influence of Geoffrey of Monmouth (Bromwich; 2017:140-41).

The Triads of the Island of Britain (Trioedd Ynys Prydein), contain Welsh traditions in groups of threes, have come down to us in several medieval Welsh manuscripts. The earliest are found in Peniarth 16, dating to the last quarter of the 13th century. Later collections are found in the White Book of Rhydderch and the Red Book of Hergest, dating to the early and late 14th century respectively. Although not written down until relatively late, some of the early Triads record events from the 6th or 7th centuries, Rachel Bromwich argues, that in their current form, none is older than the 9th century.

Medrawd appears in Triad 51, 54 and 59 (Bromwich, 2017):

‘Three Men of Shame’ (TYP 51), draws from Geoffrey’s accounts of the invasion of the Romans, the Saxons and downfall of Arthur to the treachery of Mordred at Camlan. Bromwich notes that the wording of this Triad closely follows the Brut (the Welsh versions of Geoffrey’s Historia).

‘Three Violent Ravagings’ (TYP 54) records how Medrawd went to Arthur’s court at Celliwig in Cornwall, leaving neither food or drink in the court that he did not consume. Medrawd then dragged Gwenhwyfar from her royal chair and struck a blow upon her.

‘Three Unfortunate Counsels’ (TYP 59) tells how Arthur divided his troops threefold with Medrawd at Camlan.

If we dismiss Triad 51 as directly following Geoffrey of Monmouth’s version of the fall of Arthur we may be able to detect traces of a Welsh tradition in Triad 54 where Medrawd has violated Arthur’s hospitality at Celliwig. But in Triad 59 we cannot even be certain that Arthur and Medrawd are on opposing sides.

The Triads contain further information on the cause of the strife of Camlan that we will come to later.

Rhonabwy’s Dream 
In the 13th century Dream of Rhonabwy, included in the Mabinogion, Iddawc Cordd Prydain, the Agitator of Britain, tells Rhonabwy that he was one of the messengers between Arthur and Medrawd, his nephew, at the battle of Camlan and kindled strife between them because he was young and eager for battle. When he was sent by Arthur to seek for peace with Medrawd, charged with the fairest sayings he could think of, yet Iddawc would say to Medrawd the most offensive words he could. And that, he said, is how the battle of Camlan was contrived.

The story describes in detail how Arthur’s forces are assembling at a ford by the river Severn for the Battle of Badon, but Arthur himself is more interested in playing a game of gwyddbwyll with Owain mab Urien (son of Urien Rheged). While they play the board game Arthur’s men and Owain’s ravens begin to squabble and fight until Arthur crushes the  gwyddbwyll pieces. As with the Triads, it is certainly likely that the author of Rhonabwy's Dream was influenced by Geoffrey.

Son of Llew
The 15th century Welsh text ‘The Twenty-Four Knights of Arthur’s Court’ lists Medrawd as son of Llew, son of Cynfarch, one of Three Royal Knights of Arthur’s Court. Is this the infamous Medrawd who fought at Camlan?

There were two British princes of this name in the 6th century; Medrawd ap Llew ap Cynfarch and Medrawd ap Cawrdaf, ap Caradog Freichfras. The former was the nephew of Urien of Rheged, who died around 580 and would have lived too late to have fought at Camlan, assuming that we accept the date of the battle in the Welsh Annals, 537. Here Geoffrey has his Mordred as the brother of Gawain, both sons of King Lot of Orkney and Anna (Arthur’s sister).

Whereas Caradog Freichfras (Caradoc Strongarm) is a semi-legendary ancestor to the kings of Gwent, South Wales, Cawrdaf is associated with North Wales. In the Triads Cawrdaf is listed as one of the ‘Three Chief Officers of the Island of Britain’ (TYP 13). Cawrdaf’s son is the more likely candidate to be the Medrawd of Welsh tradition.

In a late manuscript known as Bonedd y Saint (Descent of the Saints), which records the genealogical tracts of the early British Saints, Cawrdaf is listed as the father of Medrawd, in turn the father of Dyfnog (§.51), a 6th century saint.

Cawrdaf is described, in some sources, as the saint who founded churches at Llangowdra (Ceredigion), Abererch (Llyn) and Llangoed (Anglesey). Not far from the church at Abererch can be found the Saint’s well Ffynnon Cawrdaf and a rock shaped like a seat known as Cadair Cawrdaf.

The parish Church at Llanrhaeadr-yng-Nghinmeirch, Denbighshire, in the Vale of Cwyd in North Wales, famous for its medieval stained glass 'Jesse Window', is dedicated to St Dyfnog, Medrawd’s son according to Bonedd y Saint.  A spring on the hillside is known as St Dyfnog’s Well where tradition claims he did penance by standing under the waterfall in a shirt, belted with an iron chain.

Another genealogical tract lists Cawrdaf as the father of Iddawc, Agitator of Britain (§.88), the man who caused Camlan, the self-confessed traitor in Rhonabwy's Dream. Although we should be cautious in holding a high degree of confidence in these late genealogical listings, this does raise the intriguing proposition that Iddawc was the brother of Medrawd.

As we have seen, Iddawc, Agitator of Britain first appears in Rhonabwy's Dream on the plain of Argyngroeg, near Welshpool in Montgomeryshire (Powys), not so distant from Cawrdaf sites in North Wales.

Fallen Hero?
In the native Welsh tradition, Medrawd is remembered as the warrior who fell fighting with Arthur at the battle of Camlan and to the Gogynfeirdd as a man of great valour and courtesy. Evidently the true story of Medrawd has been lost and replaced with Geoffrey of Monmouth’s treacherous usurper Mordred.

It seems Geoffrey confused the Medrawd of Welsh tradition with a Cornish Mordred that he writes of in the Historia Regum Britanniae. Oliver Padel stresses that the name Mordred existed in Cornwall and Brittany in the 9th and 10th centuries, a fact which underlines Geoffrey’s sources (Padel, 2000: 15-16).

We have failed to positively identify a site with Medrawd, the man who fell at Camlan, but we find his immediate family, father Cawrdaf and son Dyfnog, both associated with locations in North Wales.


Next: The Lost Story of Camlan


Sources:
Rachel Bromwich, Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Triads of the Island of Britain, University of Wales Press, Fourth Edition, 2017.
Peter Korrel, Arthurian Triangle: A Study of the Origin, Development and Characterization of Arthur, Guinevere and Modred, Brill, 1984.
O J Padel, Arthur in Medieval Welsh Literature, University of Wales Press, 2000.
O J Padel, Geoffrey of Monmouth and Cornwall, pp.1-28, in Patrick Sims-Williams ed., CMCS 8, 1984.
Lewis Thorpe, trans., Geoffrey of Monmouth: The History of the Kings of Britain, Penguin, 1973.
Judith Weiss, Mordred, pp.81-98, in Neil Cartlidge ed., Heroes and Anti-Heroes in Medieval Romance, D.S.Brewer, 2018.

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